Skin Effect Heat Tracing: Explanation & Example

 

Skin effect is a phenomenon in alternating current (AC) systems where the current tends to flow near the surface of a conductor, with the density of the current decreasing exponentially with depth inside the conductor. This effect is important when calculating heat tracing requirements because it affects the resistance of the conductor and the amount of heat generated.

Steps to Calculate Heat Trace Power with Skin Effect Consideration

1. Understand the Parameters:

• Pipe diameter (D): Outer diameter of the pipe.
• Power density (P): Heat generated per unit length of the cable.
• Voltage (V): Voltage used in the system.
• Conductor material: Usually copper or steel for heating cables.
• Resistance (R): The resistance of the wire will be impacted by the skin effect.
• Current frequency (f): AC frequency used (typically 50 or 60 Hz).
• Insulation: Thermal insulation on the pipe and cable affects the heat dissipation and therefore the power needed.

2. Calculate the Resistance per Meter of Heat Trace Cable: The resistance (R) of the heat trace cable, considering the skin effect, can be calculated by:

R=ρ/A​

Where:

• ρ = Resistivity of the material (typically copper or aluminum).
• A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor, affected by skin depth.

3. Determine Skin Depth: The skin depth δ\deltaδ is the distance from the surface of the conductor where the current density falls to 1/e1/e1/e (approximately 37%) of its value at the surface. It is calculated as:

δ= squre root (ρ/πfμ)​​

Where:

• ρ = Resistivity of the material.
• f = Frequency of the current.
• μ = Permeability of the material (for copper, μ=4π×10−7 H/m)

4. Heat Generation: The heat generated in the cable due to resistance is given by Joule’s Law:

Q=I²R

Where:

• I = Current through the conductor.
• R = Resistance of the conductor (including the effects of skin effect).

5. Power Calculation: The power required for the heat trace system can be calculated using:

P=V²R​

Where:

• V = Voltage supplied to the heat tracing cable.
• R = Resistance of the cable, considering the skin effect.

Example Calculation

Let’s assume the following parameters:

• Pipe diameter D=0.1m
• Heating cable is made of copper (ρ=1.68×10−8 Ω⋅m).
• AC frequency f=60 Hz
• Voltage supplied V=120V
• Cable is designed to carry a current of I=5A

Step 1: Calculate the skin depth

δ = square root (ρ/πfμ) 

= square root (1.68×10⁻⁸)/(π×60×4π×10⁻⁷) ≈ 0.017 m

This means that the current flows within 0.017 meters (1.7 cm) of the surface of the conductor.

Step 2: Calculate resistance (simplified)

For simplicity, let’s assume the cable’s cross-sectional area A is designed to account for the skin effect. Let’s use a resistance R=0.5 Ω for the given length.

Step 3: Heat Generation (Joule Heating)

Now, using the current I=5A and resistance R=0.5 Ω:

Q = I²R 

= 5²×0.5 = 25×0.5 = 12.5 W

This is heat tracing cable output (W/m).

Step 4: Power Calculation

Given the voltage V=120 V and resistance R=0.5 Ω:

P = V²R 

= 120²x0.5 = 14400x0.5 = 28800W = 28.8kW

Thus, the power required for the heat tracing system is 28.8kW.

Cable & Cable Drum Schedule

Cable Schedule

Cable schedule document lists all the power and control cables that is being used for power and control cabling in any project . Also, it's to facilitate the Contractor for laying of cable at field. 

The cable schedule document lists the source and destination cables with its associated routing path. Also the cables of the packages are specified in cable schedule for easy facilitation of cabling between the package panels.

Basically cable schedule format like as per below:

Cable Drum Schedule 

Cable Drum Schedule is a consolidated document which specifies each cables shall be installed from which particular drum which shall be finally cut into pieces/ sections and used for laying and termination at field.

Basically following main points cover in cable Drum Schedule:

1. Serial Number
2. Cable Number
3. Cable Description
4. From 
5. To
6. Cable Length (M)
7. Actual Cable Length in Drum (M)
8. STD. Drum Size
9. Drum Number
10. Location 

 

 

 

 

Code & Standards for Electrical Heat Tracing System

Mostly following Code & Standards used in Electrical Heat Tracing System:

For Heat loss Calculation:

IEEE-515 : Standards for the testing, design, installation and maintenance of Electrical Resistance Heat Tracing for Industrial applications. 

Heat loss calculation as per Equation B.1:

 

Testing of Tracer:

IEC/IEEE-60079-30-1 : Explosive atmospheres 

Electrical resistance trace heating - General & testing requirements 

Type Test:

1. Dielectric Test            

2. Electrical Insulation Resistance Test 

3. Flammability Test      

4. Impact Test

4.1 Room Temperature Impact Test

4.2 Minimum Temperature Impact Test

5. Deformation Test

6. Cold Bend Test

7. Water Resistance Test

8. Integral Components Resistance To Water Test 

9. Verification of Rated Output

9.1. Resistance Method

9.2 Thermal Method

10. Thermal Stability of Electrical Insulating Material

11. Thermal Performance Test

12. Determination of Maximum Sheath Temperature 

12.1 Product Classification Approach

12.2 System Approach - Stabilized & Controlled Design Verification 

13. Test Apparatus & Procedure

13.1 Insulated Externally Heated Surfaces – Pipe Sculpture

13.2 Insulated Externally Heated Surfaces – Vessels

13.3 Insulated Externally Heated Surfaces – Tubing Bundles

13.4 Sheath Temperature Verification – Utilizing Plate Test Procedure

14. Verification of Start-up Current

15. Verification of the Electrical Resistance of Electrically Conductive Covering

16. Outdoor Exposure Test

Routine Test

1. Dielectric Test

2. Verification of rated output

 

Installation & Maintenance of Tracer:

IEC/IEEE-60079-30-2 : Explosive atmospheres

Electrical resistance trace heating Application guide for design, installation and maintenance

Other important Code & Standards: 

IS/IEC 60529 : Degree of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code)

IS-5 : Colours for ready mixed paints and enamels 

IS-1554 : PVC insulated (heavy duty) electric cables. 

IS/IEC 60079-1 : Electrical equipment with type of protection 'd' 

IS-3043 : Code of practice for earthing 

IS-5571 : Guide for selection of electrical equipment for hazardous area. 

IS/IEC-60079-15 : Electrical equipment with type of protection 'n'. 

IS-8623 : Specification for low voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies. 

IS/IEC-60079-0 : General requirements for electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmosphere. 

IS-13703 : Specification for low voltage fuses 

IS/IEC-60947 : LV switchgear and control gear. 

IEC-61439 : Low voltage switchgear & control gear assemblies 

IEC 6075 : Industrial platinum resistance thermometer sensor 

                  Part-2, Application guide for design, installation and maintenance  

 

 

Insulation Material Calculation for Vessel

Problem: 

A Vessel having diameter is 860mm & length 3700mm. Insulation thickness is 75mm. Calculated Insulation area.

Solution: 

Vessel Diameter (OD) = 0.86m
Vessel Length (L) = 3.7m
Insulation Thickness (Th) = 0.075m

Insulation Area for Vessel = ((Pie () x (OD + 2 x Th) x L) + ((Pie () x OD^2 x 2)/4) x S.F)

( We use multiply 2 in ((Pie () x OD^2 x 2)/4) because it's Top & Bottom area)

Putting all Value in above formula:

        = ((Pie () x (0.86 + 2 x 0.075) x 3.7) + ((Pie () x (0.86)^2 x 2)/4) x 1.2)

We have considered 20% Safety Factor.

        = 11.7 + 1.4

        = 13.1 Sq. M

How to calculate weight of Cladding?

Cw = ((Pie () x (D + 2 x Th))/1000) x RMT x Wc x Co.

Where:

Cw = Cladding Weight 

D = Pipe outer diameter.

Th = Insulation Thickness

RMT = Insulation running meter 

Wc = Weight of cladding in one Sq. meter

Co = Cladding overlap/ wastage 

 Normally we have considered 15-20% quantities for overlap & wattage.

Now 

Cw = ((Pie () x (D + 2 x Th))/1000) x RMT x Wc x 1.15

For Example: 

A 4" pipe having length is 120m, 1st layer insulation thickness is 50mm, 2nd layer insulation thickness is 25mm & cladding material is 24G aluminum cladding. Calculate Cladding weight? 

Solution: 

Pipe Size = 4"

Pipe OD (D) = 114.3NB

1st Layer Insulation Thickness (Th1) = 50mm

2nd Layer Insulation Thickness (Th2) = 25mm

Cladding Weight (Wc) = 1.52 Kg/m2

Insulation Running meter  (RMT) = 120 

Calculation of RMT is as per Insulation Material Calculation.

Now we putting all values in formula: 

Cw = ((Pie () x (D + 2 x Th))/1000) x RMT x Wc x Co.

Cw = (((Pie () x (114.3 + (2 x (50+25))))/1000) x 120 x 1.52 x 1.15

  = 0.830 x 120 x 1.52 x 1.15

  = 174.17 kg

Calculation of Insulation Material Weight

Insulation Area (Ia)

= 

Pie() x (Pipe OD + 2 x Th) x RMT.

Where:

Pipe OD = Outer diameter of pipe (m)

Th = Insulation thickness (m)

RMT = Insulation running meter (m)

For calculation of RMT, please Insulation Material Calculation.

Volume of insulation (Iv) = Ia x Th

Mass of insulation = Volume of insulation x insulation density.

 

For Example:

Insulation thickness is 50mm, pipe size 10” & pipe length is 100m. insulation density is 128 Kg/Cu. M.

Insulation Area (Ia) = pie() x ((273 + 2 x 50)/1000) x 100

10” pipe OD is 273 & 100m is RMT.

Ia = 117.18 m2.

Volume of insulation (Iv) = 117.18 x (50/1000)

Iv = 5.859 m3.

Mass of Insulation = Volume of insulation x insulation density.

                                = 5.859 x 128

                                = 749.952 Kg or

                                = 750 Kg.

 

For Calculation of Thermal conductivity

How to Calculate Thermal conductivity?

Thermal conductivity can be defined as the rate at which heat is transferred by conduction through a unit cross-section area of a material, when a temperature gradient exists perpendicular to the area. Thermal conductivity denoted by k, λ, or κ.

Thermal conductivity is dependent upon insulation materials. Every insulation material has a fixed thermal conductivity at mean temperature. 

Mean Temperature is average of  hot face (Maintain) temperature & cold face (Minimum Ambient) temperature. i.e.

Mean Temperature = (Hot face (Maintain) temperature + Cold face (Minimum Ambient) temperature)/2

For example:

Insulation Material : Rockwool/Glass wool

Table-1

Insulation Material : Calcium Silicate

Table-2

Insulation Material : Polyisocyanurate (PIR)/ Polyurethane (PUR)

Table-3

Now we have a question, how to calculate thermal conductivity at any mean temperature?

Solution:

k = (Difference between two mean temp of conductivity / Difference between two mean temp) X (First mean temp - calculated mean temp) + First conductivity at first mean temp

Now we understand with a example:

Hot face temp is 75 Deg C, Cold face temp is 0 Deg C & Insulation material is Rockwool. Calculate the thermal conductivity?

Solution 

1st we calculate mean temperature:

Mean Temp. = (75+0)/2 = 37.5 Deg C

i.e. we calculated thermal conductivity at 37.5 Deg C mean temperature.

Now we calculate thermal conductivity

We putting some valve from Table-1

k = (0.043-0.052)/50 X (50-37.5) + 0.043

k = -0.00018 X 12.5 + 0.043

k = 0.04075W/M Deg C

Reference:

EIL Insulation Specification.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/thermal-conductivity

Cladding Temperature

What is Cladding Temperature?

Cladding Temperature is the temperature of the outer layer. The outer layer means protection on insulation. Some of the outer layer materials are aluminum, stainless steel (SS), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE).

How to calculate cladding temperature?

Cladding Temperature D2 x ln D2 / D1 = 2 x K x (T1-T2) / F x (T2-T) ........................ (i) OR (F x D2 x ln D2 / D1) / (2 x K ) = (T1-T2) /  (T2-T) ................... (ii) Cladding temperature should be less than 60⁰C. Where D1 = Outer diameter of the pipeline (m) D2 = Outer diameter of pipeline over insulation (m) D2 = D1+2t t = Insulation thickness (m) K = Thermal conductivity of insulation (W/m⁰C) F = Surface coefficient of cladding material (W/sqm) T = Maximum ambient temperature (⁰C) T1 = Desired maintenance temperature (⁰C) T2 = Cladding temperature (⁰C) Example: 25mm insulation thickness on 8" pipe,  Insulation thermal conductivity is 0.046W/m⁰C Cladding material is Aluminum Max. ambient & maintenance temperatures are 50⁰C & 100⁰C Solution: 8" pipe outer diameter is 219.1mm i.e. D1 = 0.2191m D2 = D1 + 2t = .2191 + (2 x 25 / 1000) = 0.2691m F = Surface coefficient of aluminum = 5.7W/sqm K = 0.046W/m⁰C T = 50⁰C T1 = 100⁰C Now we put all values in the equation (ii) (5.7 x 0.2619 x ln (0.2619/0.2191)) / (2 x 0.046) = (100-T2) / (T2-50) (0.31529 / 0.092) = (100-T2) / (T2-50) 3.42711 = (100-T2) / (T2-50) Used cross multiply  3.42711 / 1 = (100-T2) / (T2-50) 3.42711 x (T2-50) = (100-T2) x 1 3.42711T2-171.3555 = 100-T2 3.42711T2 + T2  = 100 + 171.3555 4.42711T2 = 271.3555 T2 = 271.3555 / 4.42711 T2 = 61.294⁰C ....................................... Answer Conclusion: result is greater than 60⁰C, hence insulation thickness will be increased.

Heating Area for Cone Hopper

We get cone hopper dimension. I have the required height (h), initial diameter (d) & upper diameter (D).

Now we used AutoCAD for the calculation of the hopper area.

We draw a simple drawing in 2D (Figure-1).

Now we extend angular line with fillet command on initial diameter (d) side (Figure-2). we say this tentative height (H).

Now we draw a circle from center of tentative height line (Figure-3) to initial diameter edge.

Now we draw another circle from center of tentative height line (Figure-4) to upper diameter edge. This circle diameter is 2 times of tentative height.

Now we calculate maximum angle for area.

Angle (theta θ) = (D / 2H) x 360

Now we draw this angle (Figure-5) in a bigger circle.

Now we trim all unwanted lines like a triangle, other side of circles (Figure-6). 

Now we use join figure-6 and use area command & get result. 

Density

 What is density? 

Density is the substance's mass/weight per unit volume.  

OR 

In simple words, how much weight fill one cubic meter is called density. 

Some Product/compound Products have following density at sustain temperature:  

S. No.	Product/Compound Product Name	Temperature (°C)	Density (kg/m3)
1	Acetaldehyde	18	783
2	Acetaldehyde	20	788
3	Acetaldehyde	30	748
4	Acetic Acid	25	1049
5	Acetic acid	20	1048
6	Acetic acid anhydride	20	1084
7	Acetone	25	784.6
8	Acetone	20	790
9	Acetonitrile	20	782.6
10	Acrolein	20	840
11	Acrolonitrile	25	801
12	Alcohol, ethyl (ethanol)	25	785.1
13	Alcohol, methyl	25	786.51
14	Alcohol, methyl (methanol)	25	786.5
15	Allyl alcohol	20	852
16	Allyl alcohol	30	848
17	Allyl alcohol	40	844
18	Allyl chloride	20	940
19	Almond kernel oil	25	910
20	Aluminium chloride [5% sol]	20	1030
21	Aluminium nitrate  [10% sol]	20	1051
22	Aluminium sulphate [10% sol]	20	1115
23	Alyllamine	20	758
24	Ammonia (aqua)	25	823.35
25	Amyl acetate	20	885
26	Analine	25	1018.93
27	Aniline	25	1019
28	Aniline	10	1030
29	Aniline	20	1021
30	Anisole	20	994
31	Apricot kernel oil	25	910
32	Argan seed oil	20	912
33	Automobile oils	15	880 - 940
34	Avacado pulp oil	25	912
35	Babassu palm oil	25	914
36	Beef tallow (land animals)	25	902
37	Beer	20	996
38	Beer (varies)	10	1010
39	Benzaldehyde	25	1040
40	Benzene	25	873.81
41	Benzene	20	879
42	Benzene	30	868
43	Benzene	40	858
44	Benzene	50	847
45	Benzene	60	836
46	Benzil	25	1079.64
47	Benzil	15	1230
48	Benzyl alcohol	20	1045
49	Blackcurrant oil	20	923
50	Borneo tallow	100	855
51	Brine	15	1230
52	Bromine	25	3120.4
53	Bromine	20	3120
54	Butanal	20	802
55	Butane	25	599.09
56	Butterfat (land animals)	15	934
57	Butyl acetate	20	885
58	Butyl alcohol	20	810
59	Butyl alcohol	30	803
60	Butyric Acid	20	959
61	Butyric acid	0	977
62	Butyric acid	10	967
63	Calcium chloride [25% sol]	20	1227
64	Calcium chloride [5% sol]	20	1037
65	Cameline oil	15	924
66	Canola rapeseed oil	20	915
67	Caproic acid	25	921.06
68	Carbolic acid	15	956.3
69	Carbolic acid	20	1078
70	Carbolic acid	30	1069
71	Carbolic acid	40	1059
72	Carbolic acid	50	1050
73	Carbon disulfide	25	1260.97
74	Carbon disulphide	0	1292
75	Carbon disulphide	10	1277
76	Carbon disulphide	20	1262
77	Carbon tetrachloride	25	1584.39
78	Carbon tetrachloride	20	1595
79	Carbon tetrachloride	30	1525
80	Carene	25	856.99
81	Cashew nut oil	15	914
82	Castor oil	25	956.14
83	Castor oil	20	960
84	Castor oil	30	955
85	Castor oil	40	950
86	Castor oil	50	945
87	Castor oil	60	940
88	Cherry kernel oil	25	918
89	Chicken fat	15	918
90	China wood oil	20	933
91	China wood oil	30	926
92	China wood oil	40	918
93	Chinese vegable tallow	25	887
94	Chloride	25	1559.88
95	Chlorobenzene	20	1105.8
96	Chlorodifluoromethane refrigerant R-22	25	1194
97	Chloroform	20	1489.2
98	Chloroform	25	1464.73
99	Chloroform	30	1471
100	Chloroform	40	1452
101	Chloroform	50	1434
102	Chloroform	60	1415
103	Citric acid	25	1659.51
104	Citric acid, 50% aqueous solution	15	1220
105	Cocoa butter	25	974
106	Coconut oil	15	924.27
107	Coconut oil	40	930
108	Cod liver oil	15	924
109	Cohune nut oil	25	914
110	Corn oil	20	919
111	Corriander seed oil	25	908
112	Cotton seed oil	15	925.87
113	Cotton seed oil	20	920
114	Cotton seed oil	30	921
115	Cotton seed oil	40	916
116	Crambe oil	25	906
117	Creosote	15	1066.83
118	Cresol	25	1023.58
119	Crude oil, 32.6° API	15.6	862
120	Crude oil, 35.6° API	15.6	847
121	Crude oil, 40° API	15.6	825
122	Crude oil, 48o API	15.6	790
123	Crude oil, California	15.6	915
124	Crude oil, Mexican	15.6	973
125	Crude oil, Texas	15.6	873
126	Cumene	25	860.19
127	Cyclohexane	20	778.5
128	Cyclohexanol	20	952
129	Cyclohexanone	20	952
130	Cyclopentane	20	745.4
131	Cylinder oil	20	940
132	Decane	25	726.28
133	Dichlorodifluoromethane refrigerant R-12	25	1311
134	Dichloromethane	20	1326
135	Diesel fuel oil 20 to 60	15	820 - 950
136	Diethanolamine	20	1097
137	Diethyl ether	20	714
138	Diethylene glycol	15	1120
139	Diethylene glycol diethyl ether	20	906
140	Diisopropyl ether	25	719
141	Dimethyl Acetamide	20	941.5
142	Dimethyl sulfate	20	1332
143	Dimethyl sulfide	20	848
144	Dimethyl Sulfoxide	20	1100.4
145	Dioxan	20	1030
146	Dodecane	25	754.63
147	Ethane	-89	570.26
148	Ether	25	72.72
149	Ethyl Acetate	20	900.6
150	Ethyl Alcohol	20	789.2
151	Ethyl alcohol	30	754
152	Ethyl alcohol	40	737
153	Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol or drinking alcohol)	20	789
154	Ethyl Ether	20	713.3
155	Ethyl glycol	20	930
156	Ethylamine	16	680.78
157	Ethylene Dichloride	20	1253
158	Ethylene glycol	25	1096.78
159	Ethylene glycol	20	1112
160	Ethylene glycol	30	1104
161	Euphorbia lagascae seed oil	25	952
162	Fluorine refrigerant R-12	25	1310.95
163	Formaldehyde	45	812.14
164	Formic acid	20	1220
165	Formic acid	30	1208
166	Formic acid 10% concentration	20	1025
167	Formic acid 80% concentration	20	1221
168	Freon - 11	21	1490
169	Freon - 21	21	1370
170	Fuel oil	15.6	890.13
171	Fuel oil (El) Extra light	20	850
172	Fuel oil (l) light	20	910
173	Fuel oil (m) medium	20	990
174	Fuel oil (s) heavy	20	990
175	Furan	25	1416.03
176	Furforal	25	1155
177	Furforol	25	1154.93
178	Furfurol	20	1160
179	Furfurol	30	1149
180	Gas oils	15.6	890
181	Gear oil	20	905
182	Glucose	15.6	1350 - 1440
183	Glycerin	25	1259.37
184	Glycerine	25	1259
185	Glycerine	20	1261
186	Glycerol	25	1126.1
187	Glyme	20	869.1
188	Grape seed oil	20	923
189	Hazelnut oil	25	909
190	Heating oil	20	920
191	Hempseed oil	25	921
192	Heptane	25	679.5
193	Heptane	0	702
194	Heptane	10	692
195	Heptane	20	682
196	Heptane	30	671
197	Heptane	40	661
198	Herring oil	20	914
199	Hexane	25	654.83
200	Hexane	0	678
201	Hexane	10	668
202	Hexane	20	658
203	Hexane	30	649
204	Hexane	40	639
205	Hexanol	25	810.53
206	Hexene	25	671.17
207	Hexylamine	20	766
208	Hydrazine	25	794.52
209	Illipe mowrah butter	100	862
210	Iodine	25	4927.28
211	Ionene	25	932.27
212	Iso-Octane	20	691.9
213	Isobutyl Alcohol	20	801.6
214	Isopropyl Alcohol	20	785.4
215	Isopropyl Myristate	20	853.2
216	Isopropylbenzene hydroperoxide	20	1030
217	Kapok seed oil	15	926
218	Kerosene	15.6	817.15
219	Kerosine	20	804
220	Kerosine	30	780
221	Linolenic Acid	25	898.64
222	Linseed oil	25	929.07
223	Linseed oil	20	920
224	m-Xylene	20	864
225	Machine oil	20	910
226	Machine oil - light	20	900
227	Machine oil - medium	20	940
228	Mango seed oil	15	912
229	MEK	25	802.52
230	Menhaden oil	15	920
231	Mercury	0	13590
232	Mercury	20	13570
233	Methane	-164	464.54
234	Methanol	20	791.3
235	Methyl acetate	20	959
236	Methyl acetate	30	937
237	Methyl acetate	40	916
238	Methyl alcohol	0	810
239	Methyl alcohol	10	801
240	Methyl alcohol	20	792
241	Methyl Ethyl Ketone	20	805
242	Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)	20	804.9
243	Methyl glycol	20	975
244	Methyl Isoamyl Ketone	20	888
245	Methyl Isobutyl Ketone	20	800.8
246	Methyl n-Propyl Ketone	20	808.2
247	Methyl n-Propyl Ketone	20	808
248	Methyl t-Butyl Ether	20	740.5
249	Methyl t-Butyl Ether	20	741
250	Methylamine	25	656
251	Methylene chloride	20	1326
252	Milk	15	1020 - 1050
253	Milk	20	1035
254	Moringa peregrina seed oil	24	903
255	Mustard seed oil	20	913
256	Mutton tallow	15	946
257	n-Butyl Acetate	20	879.6
258	n-Butyl Alcohol	20	809.7
259	n-Butyl Alcohol (Butanol)	20	810
260	n-Butyl Chloride	20	886.2
261	n-Butylhloride	20	886
262	N-Methylpyrrolidone	20	1030.4
263	n-Propyl Alcohol	20	803.7
264	N,N-Dimethylformamide	20	948.7
265	Naphtha	15	664.77
266	Naphtha, wood	25	959.51
267	Napthalene	25	820.15
268	Neem oil	30	912
269	Niger seed oil	15	924
270	Nitric acid	0	1560
271	Nitro benzine	20	1203
272	Nonane	0	733
273	Nonane	10	725
274	Nonane	20	717
275	Nonane	30	709
276	Nonane	40	701
277	o-Dichlorobenzene	20	1305.8
278	o-Xylene	20	880.2
279	Oat been oil	25	904
280	Oat oil	25	917
281	Ocimene	25	797.72
282	Octane	15	917.86
283	Octane	0	719
284	Octane	10	711
285	Octane	20	702
286	Octane	30	694
287	Octane	40	685
288	Oil of resin	20	940
289	Oil of turpentine	20	870
290	Oil SAE 10W	20	870
291	Oil SAE 10W - 30	20	875
292	Oil SAE 20W - 20	20	885
293	Oil SAE 30	20	890
294	Oil SAE 40	20	900
295	Oil SAE 50	20	902
296	Oil, lubricating	20	900
297	Oiticica oil	20	972
298	Olive oil	20	800 - 920
299	Oxygen (liquid)	-183	1140
300	p-Xylene	20	861
301	Palm kernel oil	15	922
302	Palm oil	15	914
303	Palm olein	40	910
304	Palm stearin	60	884
305	Palmitic Acid	25	850.58
306	Paraffin		800
307	Paraffin oil	20	804
308	Paraffin oil	30	780
309	Paraldehyde	20	994
310	Peanut oil	20	914
311	Pentane	20	626.2
312	Pentane	25	624.82
313	Pentane	0	646
314	Pentane	10	636
315	Pentane	30	616
316	Perchlor ethylene	20	1620
317	Perilla oil	25	924
318	Petrol, natural	15.6	711.22
319	Petrol, Vehicle	15.6	737.22
320	Petroleum Ether	20	640
321	Phenol	25	1072.28
322	Phenol	20	1078
323	Phenol	30	1069
324	Phenol	40	1059
325	Phenol	50	1050
326	Phenol (carbolic acid)	25	1072
327	Phosgene	0	1377.59
328	Phulwara butter	100	862
329	Phytadiene	25	823.35
330	Pine nut oil	15	919
331	Pinene	25	856.99
332	Poppy seed oil	25	916
333	Pork lard	20	898
334	Propanal	25	866
335	Propane	-40	583.07
336	Propane, R-290	25	493.53
337	Propanol	25	804.13
338	Propanol	20	804
339	Propanol	30	795
340	Propanol	40	786
341	Propanol	50	777
342	Propionic acid	20	990
343	Propylamine	20	717
344	Propylene	25	514.35
345	Propylene Carbonate	20	1200.6
346	Propylene glycol	25	965.27
347	Propylene glycol	20	1038
348	Propylenearbonate	20	1201
349	Pyridine	25	978.73
350	Pyrrole	25	965.91
351	Rape seed oil	20	920
352	Rapeseed oil	20	920
353	Resorcinol	25	1268.66
354	Rice bran oil	25	916
355	Rosin oil	15	980
356	Sabiname	25	812.14
357	Salmon oil	15	924
358	Sardine oil	25	915
359	Sea water	25	1025.18
360	Sea water	0	1028
361	Sea water	10	1028
362	Sea water	100	984
363	Sea water	20	1025
364	Sea water	30	1023
365	Sea water	40	1019
366	Sea water	50	1015
367	Sea water	60	1010
368	Sea water	70	1004
369	Sea water	80	998
370	Sea water	90	991
371	Seaflower seed oil	15	924
372	Shark liver oil	25	917
373	Sheanut butter	100	863
374	Silane	25	717.63
375	Silicone oil	25	965 - 980
376	Sodium chloride [25% sol]	20	1190
377	Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda)	15	1250
378	Sodium hydroxide [20% sol]	20	1226
379	Sodium hydroxide [30% sol]	20	1330
380	Sorbaldehyde	25	895.43
381	Soya bean oil	15	924 - 928
382	Soya bean oil	20	926
383	Soybean oil	20	920
384	Stearic Acid	25	890.63
385	Stillinga seed kernel oil	25	937
386	Styrene	25	903.44
387	Styrene	20	926
388	Sugar solution 68 brix	15	1338
389	Sugar solution 68 brix	15	1338
390	Sulfur dichloride		1620
391	Sulfuric Acid 95% concentration	20	1839
392	Sulfurus acid	-20	1490
393	Sulfuryl chloride		1680
394	Sulphuric acid	20	1839
395	Sulphuric Acid 95% conc.	20	1839
396	Sunflower oil	20	920
397	Sunflower seed oil	20	919
398	Tall oil	25	969
399	Terpinene	25	847.38
400	Tetrachloroethane	20	1593
401	Tetrachloroethylene	20	1621
402	Tetrahydrofuran	20	888
403	Toluene	20	866.9
404	Toluene	25	862.27
405	Toluene	30	858
406	Toluene	40	849
407	Toluene	50	840
408	Toluene	60	831
409	Transformer oil	20	950
410	Trichlor ethylene	20	1470
411	Trichloroethylene	20	1463
412	Trichlorofluoromethane refrigerant R-11	25	1476
413	Triethylamine	20	727.6
414	Trifluoroacetic Acid	20	1489
415	Tung oil	25	912
416	Turpentine	25	868.2
417	Ucuhuba butter oil	100	870
418	Vernonia seed oil	30	901
419	Walnut oil	25	921
420	Water	0	1000
421	Water	10	1000
422	Water	100	958
423	Water	20	998
424	Water	30	996
425	Water	40	992
426	Water	50	988
427	Water	60	983
428	Water	70	978
429	Water	80	972
430	Water	90	965
431	Water - pure	4	1000
432	Water - sea	25	1022
433	Water, heavy	11.6	1105
434	Whale oil	15	925
435	Wheatgerm oil	25	926
436	Xylene-o	20	864
437	Xylene-o	30	855
438	Xylene-o	40	847
439	2,3-Butandione	18	981
440	2-Butanone	25	800
441	Crude oil, 48o API	15.6	790
442	Crude oil, 40o API	15.6	825
443	Crude oil, 35.6o API	15.6	847
444	Crude oil, 32.6o API	15.6	862
445	Crude oil,alifornia	15.6	915
446	N,N - Dimethylformamide	20	949
447	Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol or drinking alcohol)	20	789
448	Freon (Fluorine) refrigerant R-11	25	1476
449	Fluorine refrigerant R-22	25	1194
450	Formic acid 10%oncentration	20	1025
451	Formic acid 80%oncentration	20	1221
452	Sulfuric Acid 95% onc.	20	1839
453	Alcohol. propyl	25	800
454	Citric acid. 50% aqueous solution	15	1220
455	Crude oil. 32.6o API	15.6	862
456	Crude oil. 35.6o API	15.6	847
457	Crude oil. 40o API	15.6	825
458	Crude oil. 48o API	15.6	790
459	Crude oil. California	15.6	915
460	Crude oil. Mexican	15.6	973
461	Crude oil. Texas	15.6	873
462	Crude oil.California	15	915
463	Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol. pure alcohol. grain alcohol or drinking alcohol)	20	789
464	Gasoline. natural	15.6	711
465	Gasoline. Vehicle	15.6	737
466	N.N-Dimethylformamide	20	949
467	Naphtha. wood	25	960
468	Oil. lubricating	20	900
469	Paraffin	20	800
470	Petrol. natural	15.6	711
471	Petrol. Vehicle	15.6	737
472	Propane. R-290	25	494
473	Sulfur dichloride	20	1620
474	Sulfuryl chloride	20	1680
475	Vinyl chloride	25	911
476	Bitumen		1000-1050
477	Gasoline		660-690

S. No.	Element	Density (Kg/M3)	S. No.	Element	Density (Kg/M3)
1	Hydrogen	0.0899	49	Chromium	7190
2	Helium	0.1785	50	Promethium	7300
3	Neon	0.9	51	Indium	7310
4	Nitrogen	1.2506	52	Tin	7310
5	Oxygen	1.429	53	Manganese	7430
6	Fluorine	1.696	54	Samarium	7520
7	Argon	1.7824	55	Iron	7874
8	Chlorine	3.214	56	Gadolinium	7895
9	Krypton	3.75	57	Terbium	8230
10	Xenon	5.9	58	Dysprosium	8550
11	Radon	9.73	59	Niobium	8570
12	Lithium	534	60	Cadmium	8650
13	Potassium	862	61	Holmium	8800
14	Sodium	971	62	Cobalt	8900
15	Calcium	1550	63	Nickel	8900
16	Rubidium	1630	64	Copper	8960
17	Magnesium	1738	65	Erbium	9070
18	Phosphorus	1820	66	Polonium	9300
19	Beryllium	1848	67	Thulium	9320
20	Cesium	1873	68	Bismuth	9750
21	Sulfur	2070	69	Lutetium	9840
22	Carbon	2260	70	Actinium	10070
23	Silicon	2330	71	Molybdenum	10220
24	Boron	2340	72	Silver	10500
25	Strontium	2540	73	Lead	11350
26	Aluminum	2702	74	Technetium	11500
27	Scandium	2990	75	Thorium	11724
28	Bromine	3119	76	Thallium	11850
29	Barium	3590	77	Palladium	12020
30	Yttrium	4470	78	Ruthenium	12370
31	Titanium	4540	79	Rhodium	12410
32	Selenium	4790	80	Hafnium	13310
33	Iodine	4930	81	Curium	13500
34	Europium	5240	82	Mercury	13546
35	Germanium	5323	83	Americium	13670
36	Radium	5500	84	Berkelium	14780
37	Arsenic	5720	85	Californium	15100
38	Gallium	5907	86	Protactinium	15400
39	Vanadium	6110	87	Tantalum	16650
40	Lanthanum	6150	88	Uranium	18950
41	Tellurium	6240	89	Gold	19320
42	Zirconium	6510	90	Tungsten	19350
43	Antimony	6684	91	Plutonium	19840
44	Praseodymium	6770	92	Neptunium	20200
45	Cerium	6770	93	Rhenium	21040
46	Ytterbium	6900	94	Platinum	21450
47	Neodymium	7010	95	Iridium	22400
48	Zinc	7130	96	Osmium	22600

S. No.	Various Metals	Density (Kg/M3)	S. No.	Various Metals	Density (Kg/M3)
1	Mild Steel	7850	41	Mercury	13546
2	Medium carbon steel	7830	42	Molybdenum	10220
3	High carbon steel	7810	43	Neodymium	7008
4	Iron	7870	44	Niobium	8570
5	Stainless steel	7700-8000	45	Osmium	22587
6	Aluminum	2700	46	Palladium	12020
7	Copper	8930	47	Phosphorus (white)	1830
8	Brass	8500-8800	48	Platinum	21450
9	Gold	19302	49	Plutonium	19860
10	Silver	10490	50	Potassium	855
11	Lead	11340	51	Praseodymium	6773
12	Nickel	8902	52	Promethium	7264
13	Chromium	7190	53	Protactinium	15430
14	Antimony	6697	54	Rhenium	21020
15	Arsenic	5778	55	Rhodium	12410
16	Barium	3500	56	Rubidium	1532
17	Beryllium	1848	57	Ruthenium	12450
18	Bismuth	9808	58	Samarium	7520
19	Boron	2450	59	Scandium	2989
20	Cadmium	8642	60	Selenium	4809
21	Calcium	1550	61	Silicon	2329
22	Carbon (graphite)	2250	62	Sodium	967
23	Cerium	8160	63	Strontium	2600
24	Cesium	1903	64	Tantalum	16600
25	Cobalt	8832	65	Technetium	11500
26	Dysprosium	8551	66	Tellurium	6237
27	Erbium	9066	67	Terbium	8230
28	Europium	5244	68	Thallium	11872
29	Gadolinium	7901	69	Thorium	11800
30	Gallium	5907	70	Thulium	9321
31	Germanium	5323	71	Tin	5765
32	Hafnium	13310	72	Titanium	4507
33	Holmium	8795	73	Tungsten	19254
34	Indium	7300	74	Uranium	19050
35	Iridium	22562	75	Vanadium	6160
36	Lanthanum	6146	76	Ytterbium	6903
37	Lithium	533	77	Yttrium	4469
38	Lutetium	9841	78	Zinc	7133
39	Magnesium	1738	79	Zirconium	6505
40	Manganese	7430